The relationship between education and development

The relationship between education and development Development, which implies positive values, has been the concern of mankind from time immemorial. Many renowned thinkers devoted efforts to understand development better consequently theories of development have emerged. Ingemar Fagerlind and Lawrence J. Saha (1983) cited at least four clusters of development theories, namely, the (i) classic cyclical theory, which includes the Greek and Roman views of the never ending cycles of growth and decay of all material things, including nations and civilization; (ii) Augustinian Christian theory, which represented the views of doomsdayer who sees the world as heading toward major catastrophe, including the threat from a nuclear war or the explosion of the population bomb; (iii) linear theory, represented by optimists who see development as a never-ending progress; and (iv) cyclical linear theory which combines the essence of the conflict orientation of the cyclical theory and the optimistic orientation of the linear theory. By and large, people who see a dynamic interactive relationship between education and development are advocates of the linear model theory. Within this model, however, are three groups of social scientists, namely, the so called structural functionalists (e.g. Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton), the human capitalist theories (e.g. Theodore Schultz), and the modernization theorists (Alex Inkeles). The human capitalist theory and to a certain extent the modernization theory constitute the framework for building cases to show that education enhances development. The human capital theory postulates that the most efficient path to national development lies in the improvement of a countrys population. And of course, educators and almost all socio-economic planners are convinced that the best way to improve the population is through various forms of education and training Those who think of education as crucial to development also draw inspiration from the modernization theory. Alex Inkeles and his colleagues think that to modernize is to develop. Society cannot develop unless its population holds modern attitudes and values. They see a direct relationship between education and socio-economic development, in that education brings about a change in outlook in the individual which promotes productivity and work efficiency. Education has a modernizing influence on values, beliefs and behaviours which make human beings more development-oriented. Viewed from the modernization theory, education is called upon to re-orientate and/or suppress beliefs, attitudes and values which tend to obstruct the initiation of the modernization process. EDUCATION, DEVELOPMENT AND HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY S.G. Strumlin first attempted to quantify the role of education in economic growth in 1925. It was not until the late 1950s and early 1960s that interest in the study of the nature of the changes occurring in the different sectors of the economy in the United States of America pushed economists to search for explanations. Some of these economists such as Denison and Solow found out that a large part of growth in Gross National Product (GNP) in the United States over the first half of the 20th Century remained unexplained when they tried to attribute the growth to conventional economic factors. Even after taking into account increases in real physical capital like equipment, structures and the like, and total number of hours worked, a large residual still remained to be explained. However, they came to realize that important qualitative changes in the labour force had occurred. People were more productive for each hour they worked because of the greater skills and knowledge they posse ssed. The assumption was made that formal education was instrumental to these high levels of productivity that they were observing in the economy. Economists such as Schults and Becker, and economists of education such as Welch and Hoffman explained a part of the residual by what they called Human Capital of which education through formal schooling was considered a major factor. It is the view of Fagerlind and Saha that one of the first systematic articulations of the Human Capital Theory occurred in 1960 in Theodore Schultzs Presidential Address to the American Economic Association on the topic investment in Human Capital. In the address, Schultz suggested that education-was not to be viewed simply as a form of consumption but rather as a productive investment. He also argued that an educated population provided the type of labour force necessary for industrial development. Proponents of Human Capital Theory assume that formal education is highly instrumental to the improvement of the productive capacity of a population. The improvements of the productive capacity of the human work force in this sense is a form of capital investment. Human capital theorists postulated that the most efficient path to national development lies in the improvement of human capital through education. They also contended that the two pre-conditions for economic growth and development in any nation were investment in education and improvement in technology. Klees and Wells put this argument as follows: Human Capital Theory considers educational activities explicitly as investment that contribute to efficiency now and growth over time. From this perspective, education develops an individuals productive skills and therefore yields benefits over time to the individual and to the society as a whole. Thus we can evaluate, at least in part, the relative worth of allocating resources to educational activities compared to other alternative uses of these resources by examining educational costs and benefits. This framework has provided the basis for a considerable amount of educational resource and policy through the developed and developing world. This orientation championed by Schultz and Associates dominated the thinking in Economics of Education throughout the sixties. It formed the basis for manpower planning models used in forecasting educational enrollments required for specific development needs. Human Capital Theory also gave economists the conceptual tools with which to link man -power demands, their changes over time in response to economic growth and the educational system; and to incorporate them into elaborate national development plans and growth targets. Four manpower planning strategies or guidelines emerged from Human Capital research. They are the Social Demand Approach, the Manpower Requirements Analysis, the Cost-Benefit or Rate of Return Analysis and the Optimum Allocation of Resources Method. The social demand approach assumes that education is a social good. It is believed that its expansion as the demand arises will eventually result in benefits for the society. Therefore the state should bear the costs of educational expansion. Demographic data and social conditions are used in planning educational provisions when using this approach. Manpower require-ments for certain economic production targets can be estimated and produced through the formal education system. Planning education using this technique involves estimating skill requirements for certain occupational categories needed for economic development over a period of time. In cost-benefit analysis, estimates of the costs of acquiring various levels and kinds of education and the benefits associated with each kind and level are made. The assumption is that the value of the ratios so estimated would guide planners in decision-making with respect to the kinds of education to be offered or changed. In so doing, competitive rates of return on investment in education relative to other investment portfolios in the conventional capital markets can be maintained. The method used in optimum allocation of resources is to describe the principal relationships between education and other sectors of the economy and then to allocate resources optimally, given some objective functions and constraints. In general, linear programming techniques are used to derive the education production functions. In most developing countries, the manpower requirements approach was used as a guideline to relate educational planning to economic needs. A survey in 76 countries in 1968 showed that 65 of them had educational plans modeled after the manpower needs of the country. How-ever, as Sobel pointed out, protagonists of the manpower planning approach subsequently developed systematic mathematical models integrating manpower needs and educational planning which resulted in a proliferation of single-occupation studies in virtually all societies by each university or national university system, governmental manpower department, education ministry or vocational training department. Linear programming techniques were used to combine rates of return or cost-benefit analyses approaches with manpower requirements techniques to generate models of demand for education from the expected level and distribution of output in a given economy. These were done in an effort to ascertain whether the resultant manpower and education mix would maximize the growth of Gross National Product, maximize the excess of benefits over the costs of education. Most of the research findings showed that in country after country, a correlation exists between levels of education and subsequent lifetime earnings. In a comprehensive research study, Psacharopoulos standardized 53 rate of return studies for 32 different countries and sought to determine what generalizations could be made from the results. Some of the findings are as follows: * rates of return are generally higher in less developed countries; * primary education tends to yield the highest returns; * returns to human capital exceed those on physical capital in underdeveloped countries but roughly equal those on physical capital in developed countries; and * differences in per capita income can be explained better by differences in human than in physical capital. This theoretical orientation of the Human Capital Theory, as Kless and Wells point out provided a basic justification for large public expenditure on the expansion of formal school systems in developing countries. Its appeal was based on the presumed economic returns to investment in education both at the macro and micro levels. Thus governments intensified efforts to invest in Human Capital so as to achieve rapid economic growth and development.The obvious policy implication for most governments given the results of such empirical research was to expand enrollments and to provide for a longer period of schooling in order to maximize the benefits from schooling. In Africa, a Conference of African States on the development of Education in Africa was organized by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) from May 15 25, 1961. The Conference, as Thompson noted, firmly grasped the concept that education was an investment in productivity and urged that educational provision should be planned continuously in relation to manpower needs at all times. EDUCATION, DEVELOPMENT AND MODERNITY THEORY Another dimension from which the relationship between education and development was vigorously examined and explicated during the 1960s was in the social psychological and sociological formulations of modernity theory. Modernity theorists argued that modernization is essentially a social-psychological process through which a country becomes modern only after its population has adopted modern attitudes, values and beliefs. They tried to show that there were causal links between modernizing institutions, modern values, modern behaviour, modern society and economic development. They maintained that the creation of modern values can be planned. Particular social institutions like the school, the family, the media and the workplace were identified as being of extreme importance in the emergence of modem values. However, most modernity theorists placed considerable emphasis on education because the school was perceived as a major agent in producing the skilled manpower and the modem attitudes and values necessary for the existence of a modern society. In the early postà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬World War II era, approximately twenty societies were regarded as highly modernized and roughly another ten to twenty were depicted as having passed a threshold on the path to modernization. Definitions of modernized varied. Some noted structural features, such as levels of education, urbanization, use of inanimate sources of energy, and fertility. Others pointed to attitudes, such as secularization, achievement orientation, functional specificity in formal organizations, and acceptance of equality in relationships. Conscious of the ethnocentric nature of many earlier explanations for growth in national power and income, social scientists in the 1950s and 1960s generally omitted cultural traits associated closely with Western history from definitions of modernity. Yet, given the rhetoric of the Cold War and a preoccupation with democracy in U.S. national identity, political institutions became a central factor in many definitions. The theory of modernization normally consists of three parts: (1) identification of types of societies, and explanation of how those designated as modernized or relatively modernized differ from others; (2) specification of how societies become modernized, comparing factors that are more or less conducive to transformation; and (3) generalizations about how the parts of a modernized society fit together, involving comparisons of stages of modernization and types of modernized societies with clarity about prospects for further modernization. Actually, reasoning about all of these issues predated postwar theory. From the Industrial Revolution, there were recurrent arguments that a different type of society had been created, that other societies were either to be left permanently behind or to find a way to achieve a similar transformation, and that not all modernizing societies had equal success in sustaining the process due to differences in economic, political, and other institutions. In the middle of the 1950s, these themes acquired new social science and political casting with the claim of increased rigor in analysis. (Modernization Theory Defining Modernization Theory Modernization Theory Modernization theory is a description and explanation of the processes of transformation from traditional or underdeveloped societies to modern societies. In the words of one of the major proponents, Historically, modernization is the process of change towards those types of social, economic, and political systems that have developed in Western Europe and North America from the seventeenth century to the nineteenth and have then spread to other European countries and in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to the South American, Asian, and African continents (Eisenstadt 1966, p. 1). Modernization theory has been one of the major perspectives in the sociology of national development and underdevelopment since the 1950s. Primary attention has focused on ways in which past and present premodern societies become modern (i.e., Westernized) through processes of economic growth and change in social, political, and cultural structures. In general, modernization theorists are concerned with economic growth within societies as indicated, for example, by measures of gross national product. Mechanization or industrialization are ingredients in the process of economic growth. Modernization theorists study the social, political, and cultural consequences of economic growth and the conditions that are important for industrialization and economic growth to occur. Indeed, a degree of circularity often characterizes discussions of social and economic change involved in modernization processes because of the notion, embedded in most modernization theories, of the functional compatibility of component parts. Although, there are many versions of modernization theory, major implicit or explicit tenets are that (1) societies develop through a series of evolutionary stages; (2) these stages are based on different degrees and patterns of social differentiation and reintegration of structural and cultural components that are functionally compatible for the maintenance of society; (3) contemporary developing societies are at a premodern stage of evolution and they eventually will achieve economic growth and will take on the social, political, and economic features of western European and North American societies which have progressed to the highest stage of social evolutionary development; (4) this modernization will result as complex Western technology is imported and traditional structural and cultural features incompatible with such development are overcome. For example, in the social realm, modern societies are characterized by high levels of urbanization, literacy, research, health care, secularization, bureaucracy, mass media, and transportation facilities. Kinship ties are weaker, and nuclear conjugal family systems prevail. Birthrates and death rates are lower, and life expectancy is relatively longer. In the political realm, the society becomes more participatory in decision-making processes, and typical institutions include universal suffrage, political parties, a civil service bureaucracy, and parliaments. Traditional sources of authority are weaker as bureaucratic institutions assume responsibility and power. In the economic realm, there is more industrialization, technical upgrading of production, replacement of exchange economies with extensive money markets, increased division of labor, growth of infrastructure and commercial facilities, and the development of large-scale markets. Associated with these structural changes are cultural changes in role relations and personality variables. Social relations are more bureaucratic, social mobility increases, and status relations are based less on such ascriptive criteria as age, gender, or ethnicity and more on meritocratic criteria. There is a shift from relations based on tradition and loyalty to those based on rational exchange, competence, and other universally applied criteria. People are more receptive to change, more interested in the future, more achievement-oriented, more concerned with the rights of individuals, and less fatalistic. Educational Reform and Human Capital Development. Aga Khan University Examination Board (AKU-EB) is a Federal Board of Intermediate and Secondary Education established by Aga Khan University (AKU) in response to demand from schools for more appropriate school examinations. AKU-EB was founded in August 2003. It offers examination services to both Secondary School Certificate (SSC) and Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSSC) throughout Pakistan. Its primary purpose is to improve the quality of education by making examinations of reputable standard more accessible to Pakistani students and having them increasingly valued by leading higher education institutions in and outside the country. In 2000, AKU-BOT approved the recommendation of the task force to establish and examination board. Its principal aim was to offer high quality public examinations using modern methods of assessment to test achievement within the national curriculum in order to enhance the quality of education. AKU-EB from the beginning was envisaged as a small undertaking which would be able to serve as a role model to have positive impact in field of education. There has been great amount of funds poured in to AKU EB. Besides AKU, USAID supported through the Governments Educational Sector Reforms throughout Pakistan . After the initial start-up period of five years, the University expects to become solely responsible for AKU-EBs financial affairs. The general objective of the AKU-EB is to design and offer high quality public examinations in English and Urdu based on the national curriculum for secondary and higher secondary education. It also arranges training sessions for teachers to develop appropriate learning materials to prepare teachers and students for the new examination system. It is intended to serve as a model of internationally recognized good practice in order to enhance the countrys capacity for educational assessment and tests, and therefore to improve the quality of education in schools, and through them, the quality of education in the national universities. The concept of human capital and education revolutions intertwined because formal education is an important factor in human capital formation. One of the objectives of AKU EB is to improve school environment by improving their curriculum by changing assessment strategy. Generally an individualà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s levels of human capital are raised producing better school results. Hence this effect the policy making in public and privte sector involved in educational reforms. Education is an investment in human capital, that is, in the skills and knowledge that produce a return to the individual in the form of higher earnings. Education also has social returns or spillovers. The presence of educated workers in a region enhances the earnings of those who, regardless of their own educational level, work with or near educated workers. I would be interested to know about how AKU EB is measuring its impact on schools and teachers. How it can be explained by human capital development theory perspective? How is it investing in building infra structure and equiopment and training? What are individual and social returns of AKU EB efforts? And what are its effects on changing other local boardsà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ assessment strategies and curricula. How are teachers and parents looking at AKU EB as source of human capital development?

Compare and Contrast Tennysons Mariana with Brownings Porphyrias Lov

Compare and Contrast Tennyson's Mariana with Browning's Porphyria's Lover. What is the emotional state of each speaker and how effectively is this conveyed? Tennyson and Browning were contemporary Victorian poets. During his lifetime, Tennyson was made Poet Laureate. His poem 'Mariana' is very cyclical and minimal. The mood is depressive, which reflected Tennyson's family traits, as Tennyson himself was very susceptible to depression. However, Browning's 'Porphyria's Lover' is very linear as the action clearly moves from one stage to another and is not so repetitive. The remote and rural location of each poem portrays a sense of loneliness and isolation that is directed towards the central character. This heightens feeling and emotion and enables them to be introspected and egocentric. Both Mariana and Porphyria's Lover as people are unhappy with their current lives. They both desire love, as they feel frustrated because of their lovers. However, the two are slightly different. Mariana has been dejected whereas Porphyria's lover needs to control the relationship. In verse one of 'Mariana', the overall theme is one of isolation and neglect. The 'rusted nails' and 'broken shed' set the scene that Mariana too is neglected throughout the poem. 'My life is dreary' is Mariana showing her depression and also turning the misery in on herself; her lover 'cometh not'. Verse two shows Mariana crying. Her misery and gloominess are overwhelmingly apparent. Also her isolation from people is evident as she is shown to be in-tune with nature as her tears correspond to the drops of dew in the fields around her. Other features of her background are also appropriate. 'She glanced athwart the glooming flats' sugges... ...f, 'O God, that I were dead!' Another similarity is obvious here because both solutions are death but the difference is that Mariana but must commit suicide. 'Mariana' is very much a Victorian feminist poem in stressing female passivity, which was very prominent in that era. 'Porphyria's Lover' reinforces the idea of male activity and dominance compared with females having the over ruling power. Both poems are very successful in portraying desperate situations but focus on different points. Tennyson is very effective in showing a switch in power and the thought process of the central character. However, Browning's depiction of detail around Mariana's entrapment is most impressive. The way we can see her life going round and round in circles with amazing background ingredients is fantastic imagery by Tennyson. Therefore I think Mariana is more effective. Compare and Contrast Tennyson's Mariana with Browning's Porphyria's Lov Compare and Contrast Tennyson's Mariana with Browning's Porphyria's Lover. What is the emotional state of each speaker and how effectively is this conveyed? Tennyson and Browning were contemporary Victorian poets. During his lifetime, Tennyson was made Poet Laureate. His poem 'Mariana' is very cyclical and minimal. The mood is depressive, which reflected Tennyson's family traits, as Tennyson himself was very susceptible to depression. However, Browning's 'Porphyria's Lover' is very linear as the action clearly moves from one stage to another and is not so repetitive. The remote and rural location of each poem portrays a sense of loneliness and isolation that is directed towards the central character. This heightens feeling and emotion and enables them to be introspected and egocentric. Both Mariana and Porphyria's Lover as people are unhappy with their current lives. They both desire love, as they feel frustrated because of their lovers. However, the two are slightly different. Mariana has been dejected whereas Porphyria's lover needs to control the relationship. In verse one of 'Mariana', the overall theme is one of isolation and neglect. The 'rusted nails' and 'broken shed' set the scene that Mariana too is neglected throughout the poem. 'My life is dreary' is Mariana showing her depression and also turning the misery in on herself; her lover 'cometh not'. Verse two shows Mariana crying. Her misery and gloominess are overwhelmingly apparent. Also her isolation from people is evident as she is shown to be in-tune with nature as her tears correspond to the drops of dew in the fields around her. Other features of her background are also appropriate. 'She glanced athwart the glooming flats' sugges... ...f, 'O God, that I were dead!' Another similarity is obvious here because both solutions are death but the difference is that Mariana but must commit suicide. 'Mariana' is very much a Victorian feminist poem in stressing female passivity, which was very prominent in that era. 'Porphyria's Lover' reinforces the idea of male activity and dominance compared with females having the over ruling power. Both poems are very successful in portraying desperate situations but focus on different points. Tennyson is very effective in showing a switch in power and the thought process of the central character. However, Browning's depiction of detail around Mariana's entrapment is most impressive. The way we can see her life going round and round in circles with amazing background ingredients is fantastic imagery by Tennyson. Therefore I think Mariana is more effective.

Coffee shop Essay

Java Culture coffee bar is determined to become a daily necessity for local coffee addicts, a place to dream of as you try to escape the daily stresses of life and just a comfortable place to meet your friends or to read a book, all in one. With the growing demand for high-quality gourmet coffee and great service, Java Culture will capitalize on its proximity to the University of Oregon campus to build a core group of repeat customers. Java Culture will offer its customers the best prepared coffee in the area that will be complimented with pastries, as well as free books that its patrons can read to enjoy their visit. The company will operate a 2,300 square foot coffee bar within a walking distance from the University of Oregon campus. The owners have secured this location through a three-year lease with an option for extending. The have also provided $140,000 of the required $170,000 start-up funds. The remaining capital will be obtained through Bank of America commercial loans. The company is expected to grow sales revenue from $584,000 in FY2001 to $706,000 in year three. As Java Culture will strive to maintain a 65% gross profit margin and reasonable operating expenses, it will see net profits grow from $100,000 to $125,000 during the same period. 1.1 Objectives. Java Culture’s objectives for the first year of operations are: Become selected as the â€Å"Best New Coffee Bar in the area† by the local restaurant guide. Turn in profits from the first month of operations. Maintain a 65% gross margin. 1.2 Keys to Success The keys to success will be: Store design that will be both visually attractive to customers, and designed for fast and efficient operations. Employee training to insure the best coffee preparation techniques. Marketing strategies aimed to build a solid base of loyal customers, as well as maximizing the sales of high margin products, such as espresso drinks. 1.3 Mission. Java Culture will make its best effort to create a unique place where customers can socialize with each other in a comfortable and relaxing environment while enjoying the best brewed coffee or espresso and pastries in town. We will be in the business of helping our customers to relieve their daily stresses by providing piece of mind through great ambience, convenient location, friendly customer service, and products of consistently high quality. Java Culture will invest its profits to increase the employee satisfaction while providing stable return to its shareholders. Company Summary. Java Culture, an Oregon limited liability company, sells coffee, other beverages and snacks in its 2,300 square feet premium coffee bar located near the University of Oregon campus. Java Culture’s major investors are Arthur Garfield and James Polk who cumulatively own over 70% of the company. The start-up loss of the company is assumed in the amount of $27,680. 2.1 Company Ownership. Java Culture is registered as a Limited Liability Corporation in the state of Oregon. Arthur Garfield owns 51% of the company. His cousin, James Polk, as well as Megan Flanigan and Todd Barkley hold minority stakes in Java Culture, LLC. 2.2 Company Locations and Facilities Java Culture coffee bar will be located on the ground floor of the commercial building at the corner of West 13th Avenue and Patterson Street in Eugene, OR. The company has secured a one-year lease of the vacant 2,500 square feet premises previously occupied by a hair salon. The lease contract has an option of renewal for three years at a fixed rate that Java Culture will execute depending on the financial strength of its business. The floor plan will include a 200 square feet back office and a 2,300 square feet coffee bar, which will include a seating area with 15 tables, a kitchen, storage area and two bathrooms. The space in the coffee bar will be approximately distributed the following way–1,260 square feet (i.e., 55% of the total) for the seating area, 600 square feet (26%) for the production area, and the remaining 440 square feet (19%) for the customer service area. This property is located in a commercial area within a walking distance from the University of Oregon campus on the corner of a major thoroughfare connecting affluent South Eugene neighborhood with the busy downtown commercial area. The commercially zoned premises have the necessary water and electricity hookups and will require only minor remodeling to accommodate the espresso bar, kitchen and storage area. The coffee bar’s open and clean interior design with modern wooden decor will convey the quality of the served beverages and snacks, and will be in-line with the establishment’s positioning as an eclectic place where people can relax and enjoy their cup of coffee. The clear window displays, through which passerby will be able to see customers enjoying their beverages, and outside electric signs will be aimed to grab the attention of the customer traffic. Products Java Culture will offer its customers the best tasting coffee beverages in the area. This will be achieved by using high-quality ingredients and strictly following preparation guidelines. The store layout, menu listings and marketing activities will be focused on maximizing the sales of higher margin espresso drinks. Along with the espresso drinks, brewed coffee and teas, as well as some refreshment beverages, will be sold in the coffee bar. Java Culture will also offer its clients pastries, small salads and sandwiches. For the gourmet clientele that prefers to prepare its coffee at home, Java Culture will also be selling coffee beans. The menu offerings will be supplemented by free books and magazines that customers can read inside the coffee bar. 3.1 Product Description. The menu of the Java Culture coffee bar will be built around espresso-based coffee drinks such as lattes, mochas, cappuccinos, etc. Each of the espresso-based drinks will be offered with whole, skimmed, or soy milk. Each of these coffee beverages is based on a ‘shot’ of espresso, which is prepared in the espresso machine by forcing heated water through ground coffee at high pressure. Such espresso shots are combined with steamed milk and/or other additives like cocoa, caramel, etc., to prepare the espresso-based beverages. Proper preparation techniques are of paramount importance for such drinks. A minor deviation from the amount of coffee in the shot, the size of the coffee particles, the temperature of milk, etc., can negatively affect the quality of the prepared drink. 3.2 Sales Literature.

What Is White Noise

In the simplest of terms, white noise is sound that can be used to cover up background sounds. Because of its ability to drown out potentially distracting sounds, white noise is often recommended as a sleep and study aid. For example, people who find it hard to fall asleep without a fan running in the bedroom may not be responding to the fan’s cooling breeze, but to its soothing sound. However, while it has been found effective in helping people sleep and learn in some cases, white noise can have some negative effects, especially when used with newborns. Key Takeaways: White Noise White noise is the combination of all approximately 20,000 sound frequencies people are capable of hearing, ranging from about 20 to about 20,000 Hz.Most people describe white noise as a hissing sound, like the sound of the letters â€Å"sh† in the word â€Å"hush.†White noise has been found effective in helping people fall asleep, as well as study and learn. White Noise Definition Science defines white noise as the combination all of the audible sound frequencies. Research has shown that people with normal hearing can hear sound frequencies ranging from 20 to 20,000 Hz. In other words, white noise can be thought of being like the sound of about 20,000 different tones all playing at once. The actual sound of white noise is typically described as hissing sound, similar to the sound of the letters â€Å"sh† in the word â€Å"hush.† The adjective â€Å"white† was chosen to describe this ultimate combination of sounds because of the similarity of white noise to the qualities of white light, the scientific description of the combination of all colors of the visible light spectrum. As a combination of all audible frequencies, white noise can be used mask other potentially distracting sounds. For example, turning on a fan might help drown out the voices from a next-door neighbor’s loud party. In this sense, the droning sound of the fan is similar to white noise. But how does white noise mask other noises? In normal conversation, for example, people can usually pick out and understand individual voices when groups of three or four people are all speaking at the same time. However, when large groups of people are talking simultaneously, the likelihood of being able to hear any single voice is greatly reduced. In this nature, the sound of say 1,000 people talking at once is similar to white noise. White Noise for Studying Since most people who are distracted find it hard to focus, teachers urge students to study in quiet rooms. But because they find studying boring, some people say that sounds like music or television actually help them concentrate. However, since such easily-distinguished sound can become distracting, some educators and psychologists suggest white noise as an alternative study aid.   While the use of white noise as a sleep aid has been around since the early 1960s, the theory that it might also help people learn is relatively new. Research conducted in 2014 at the University of Hamburg-Eppendorf Medical Center and published in the Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, found a positive link between white noise and people learning mathematics, and the short-term memory of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Other research, however, indicates that the effects of background noise on learners can depend on their individual personalities. For example, a 2010 study done at University College in London found that both white noise-like sounds and music actually impaired the comprehension, memory and learning ability of introverts. In other words, the effectiveness of white noise or other background sounds as a study aid remains a case of personal experience rather than well-established scientific research. White Noise for Sleep While it may seem illogical, the idea that noise can help people fall asleep is well established. Devices that produce white noise have been popular sleep aids for years. Many people find it hard, if not impossible, to get to sleep without their white noise machine. To them, total silence is a distraction. Since years of extensive research have shown that chronic sleeplessness can cause brain damage, doctors often recommend white noise devices for treating sleep deprivation.  In addition, white noise is sometimes used as an alternative therapy in treating tinnitus, a constant ringing in the ear that can disrupt sleep. But how does white noise help people get to sleep? Beneficial to our own survival, our sense of hearing still works while we are asleep. Science suggests that rather than the background noise itself, it is sudden changes in background noise that jars us from sleep. By creating a sound masking effect, white noise blocks sudden changes in sound helping people fall asleep and light sleepers remain asleep. In what has become the â€Å"sleep industry,† the term â€Å"white noise† is used as a generic description for any background noise that is constant and unchanging. Other relaxing or comforting sounds available on today’s so-called â€Å"sleep machines† include soothing sounds from nature, like gentle rain, ocean surf, distant thunder, and crickets chirping. Many people find these sounds to be more effective as sleep aids than the â€Å"sh† sound of pure white noise. White Noise and Helping Babies Sleep White noise is often recommended as helpful in getting babies to fall asleep and establish regular sleep patterns. A groundbreaking study conducted in 1990 at the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland found that 32 of 40 newborns studied (80%) were able to fall asleep after just five minutes of listening to white noise. However, the American Academy of Pediatrics warns that there can be pros and cons of using white noise machines with infants. The Pros of White Noise for Babies Some babies do fall asleep faster with white noise in the background.White noise can help drown out household noises common during nap times.Some white noise machines comfort and relax newborns by producing a sound mimicking their mother’s heartbeat. The Cons of White Noise for Babies White noise machines do not help all babies fall asleep and may even prevent some from sleeping.The maximum volume settings for white noise machines may exceed recommended noise limits for babies.Newborns can become â€Å"addicted† to white noise, becoming unable to sleep without it. While they may be tempted to try anything to get baby to sleep, parents should talk to their pediatrician before resorting to white noise machines. What About Television and Sleep? Either accidentally or on purpose, many people fall asleep while watching television. Some people even use a TV as a type of white noise machine to help them get to sleep. However, research has shown that TV-sleep is not always healthy sleep. Many test subjects who had spent a full seven to nine hours sleeping with a TV on in the room reported still feeling drowsy or not fully rested in the morning. Unlike white noise, the volume and tone of the TV change constantly, and since the sense of hearing continues to function during sleep, these changes can disturb sleep. Some people even wake up if the TV is turned off. In addition, the constantly changing colors and brightness of the TV picture can interfere with sleep. Essentially, researchers say that while they are rarely consciously aware of it, parts of peoples’ brains continue to â€Å"watch† the TV even while they sleep. For a healthy, restful night’s sleep, health care experts recommend that both the sound and lighting levels in the room remain consistent throughout the sleep period. Sources and Further Reference Sensitivity of Human Ear. Hyper Physics.Rausch, Vanessa H., Bauch, Eva M. (2014). White Noise Improves Learning by Modulating Activity in Dopaminergic Midbrain Regions and Right Superior Temporal Sulcus. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.Furnham, Adrian Strbac, Lisa. (2010) Music is as distracting as noise: The differential distraction of background music and noise on the cognitive test performance of introverts and extraverts. University College, London. Horowitz, Seth. (2012) The Universal Sense: How Hearing Shapes the Mind. Bloombsbury USA. ISBN-10: 1608198839.Spencer, J.A., Moran, D.J., Lee A, and Talbert, D. (1990) White noise and sleep induction. Royal College of Physicians of Ireland. Archives of Disease in Childhood.Can Infant Sleep Machines Be Hazardous to Babies Ears? (2014). American Academy or Pediatrics.Cespedes, Elizabeth M., SM. (2014). Television Viewing, Bedroom Television, and Sleep Duration from Infancy to Mid-Childhood. Pediatrics.A good nights sleep. Kaiser Perm anente.